Reproductive mechanisms of digital inequality

Marina Alpidovskaya; Anastasiya Sirotkina

doi:10.52957/2221-3260-2025-10-13-32

VAK Russia

5.2.1

REPRODUCTIVE MECHANISMS OF DIGITAL INEQUALITY Reproductive mechanisms of digital inequality

АА Аа

Published in Theoretical economics · Pages 13–32 · Rubric: ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF THEORETICAL ECONOMY

DOI: https://doi.org/10.52957/2221-3260-2025-10-13-32

Received: 02.10.2025 Accepted: 16.10.2025 Published: 31.10.2025

Authors

Marina Alpidovskaya

ORCID

Anastasiya Sirotkina

ORCID

Marina Alpidovskaya

Academic degree: doctor of economic sciences

Science rang: professor

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation" Vladikavkaz Branch Russian Federation · Moscow

ORCID

Anastasiya Sirotkina

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation" Vladikavkaz Branch Russian Federation · Moscow

ORCID

ABSTRACT

The relevance of overcoming the global asymmetry in access to digital solutions and technologies is of particular importance in the context of the pervasive use of digital solutions in all areas of the national economy, including at critical information infrastructure facilities. In this connection, the problem arises of both gaining access to modern achievements of science and technology in the field of information technology, and the long-term development of sectors of the national economy that directly determine the achievement of technological sovereignty, overcoming technological cooling, as well as long-term socio-economic development. The purpose of the study is to substantiate the thesis about the high level of monopolization of the global information technology market as a reproductive mechanism of global digital inequality. The purpose of the study is achieved based on the following tasks: identifying key sectors of information infrastructure, identifying the global structure of the market for ready-made digital, hardware and infrastructure solutions, assessing the level of monopolization of these markets, as well as determining the prospects for the development of information and communication technologies in developing countries. The research methods are based on secondary analysis of open data regarding the level of monopolization of the markets for ready-made software, hardware and infrastructure solutions, as well as the ownership structure of the world’s largest suppliers of ready-made solutions in the field of information and telecommunications technologies. The study proved (in some industries extremely) a high level of monopolization of markets for ready-made solutions in the field of information and telecommunication technologies, and confirmed the super-monopolization of the digital technology market at the level of the ownership structure of world monopolies, which confirms the identified mechanism for the reproduction of digital inequality in the global economic system.

KEYWORDS

digital inequality, Internet, digital resources and technologies, global value chains, monopolization, world monopolies

Text

Text (PDF)

Read Download

1. Electricity Production by Country 2025. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/electricity-production-by-country (data obrascheniya: 21.08.2025 g.).

2. AT&T Inc (T). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/at-t-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

3. Deuche Telecom AG (DTEGn). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/dt-telecom-ownership (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

4. GTT Communications, Inc. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://en.porti.ru/company/nyse:GTT (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

5. Exploring Liberty Global plc (LBTYB) Investor Profile: Who’s Buying and Why?. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://dcfmodeling.com/blogs/investors/lbtyb-investor-profile (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

6. Lumen Technologies Inc (LUMN). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.investing.com/equities/centurylink-ownership (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

7. NTT UD REID Investment Corp (8956). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.investing.com/equities/premier-ownership (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

8. Orange S.A.: history, mission, how it works & makes money. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://dcfmodeling.com/blogs/history/orapa-history-mission-ownership (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

9. PCCW (0008). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.investing.com/equities/pccw-ownership (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

10. Who Invests in Tata Communications Limited and Why?. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://dsfmodeling.K.M.M.K.Investors/tatakmns-i (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

11. Qiu, W. Retelit and the MEF Signed Agreement with TIM to Acquire Sparkle for €700 million / W. Qiu. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.submarinenetworks.com/en/nv/news/acquire-sparkle-for-euro-700million (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

12. Le Maistre, R. New Owner, new name: Telia Carrier becomes Arelion /R. Le Maistre. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.telecomtv.com/content/access-evilution/new-owner-new-name-telia-carrier-becomes-arelion-43388/ (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

13. Burkitt-Gray, A. Telxius shareholders complete €215m buy-out of KKR stake / A. Burkitt-Gray. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.capacitymedia.com/article/2b62tp5s7xoy502352jgg/news/telxius-sharehplders-complete-215-m-buy-out-of-kkr-stake (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

14. Verizon Communications Inc (VZ). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/verizon-communications-ownership (25.08.2025 g.).

15. Zayo Group. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://pitchbook.com/profiles/company/10713-79#overview (data obrascheniya 25.08.2025 g.).

16. Starlink satellites: Facts, tracking and impact on astronomy. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.space.com/spacex-starlink-satellites.html (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

17. High Throughput. Low latency. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://oneweb.net/our-network (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

18. Project Kuiper. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/projectkuiper (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

19. Lynk Global fundraise passes $85 million as direct-to-smartphone satellite race hearts up. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://spacenews.com/lynk-global-fundraise-passes-85-million-as-direct-to-smartphone-satellite-race-hearts-up (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

20. SatRev (STORK, REC). – Tekst : elektronnyy. URL: https://www.newspace.im/constellations/satrev (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

21. Sfera. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.deagel.com/Aerospace%20Forces/Sfera/a004297 (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

22. Gregersen, E. Megaconstellation / E. Gregersen. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.britannica.com/technology/megaconstellation (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

23. Comission takes next step to deploy the IRIS2 secure satellite system. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://defence-industry-space.ec.europa.eu/eu-space/iris2-secure-connectivity-en (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

24. Swinhoe, D. Telesat closes funding for Lightspeed LEO network / D. Swinhoe. – URL: https://www.datacenterdynamics.com/en/news/telesat-closes-funding-for-lightspeed-leo-network/#:~text=We’re%20putting%20Canada%20at,%2C%20market%20reports%2c%20and%20more. (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

25. Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship. 17th Edition. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/assets/67729/2000%20Global%20Innovation%20Index%202024_WEB3lite.pdf (data obrascheniya: 21.08.2005 g.).

26. Market Share Analysis: Enterprise Network Equipment, Worldwide, 2024. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.gartner.com/en/documents/6409975#:~:text=Summary,2024%20with%2026.3%25%20market%20share. (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

27. Cisco Vs competitors: How CISCO stays ahead in networking technology. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.rededucation.com/cisco-vs-competitors-how-cisco-stays-ahead-in-networking-technology/#:~:text=Founded%20in%201984%2C%20Cisco%20Systems,often%20follow%20rather%20than%20lead. (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

28. Enterprise WLAN Market Grew 10.6% in the First Quarter of 2025, according to IDC Worldwide WLAN Tracker. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://my-idc-com.translate.goog/getdoc.jsp?containerld=prUS53604125&_x_tr_tl=ru&_x_tr_hl=ru&_x_tr_pto=sge (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

29. Cisco Vs competitors: How CISCO stays ahead in networking technology. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.rededucation.com/cisco-vs-competitors-how-cisco-stays-ahead-in-networking-technology/#:~:text=Founded%20in%201984%2C%20Cisco%20Systems,often%20follow%20rather%20than%20lead. (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

30. Nokia Corporation. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.fitchratings.com/research/corporate-finance/nokia-corporation-20-09-2024 (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

31. Ericsosn earns top spot in Omadia Market Landscape RAN Vendors report for 2025. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.ericson.com/en/news/2025/7/ericson-leads-omdia-market-landscape-ran-vendors-2025 (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

32. Oborudovanie svyazi (mirovoy rynok). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F:%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B8_(%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA)#:~:text=%D0%9F%D0%BE%20%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%2C%20%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%20%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5,%D0%BE%D1%82%200%25%20%D0%B4%D0%BE%205%25 (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

33. Cisco Vs competitors: How CISCO stays ahead in networking technology. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.rededucation.com/cisco-vs-competitors-how-cisco-stays-ahead-in-networking-technology/#:~:text=Founded%20in%201984%2C%20Cisco%20Systems,often%20follow%20rather%20than%20lead. (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

34. Oborudovanie svyazi (mirovoy rynok). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F:%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B8_(%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA)#:~:text=%D0%9F%D0%BE%20%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%2C%20%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%20%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5,%D0%BE%D1%82%200%25%20%D0%B4%D0%BE%205%25 (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

35. Ethernet-kommutatory lokal'nyh setey. Mirovoy rynok. – Tekst : elektronnyy – URL: https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F:Ethernet-%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9_(%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA) (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

36. Sistemy umnogo doma (mirovoy rynok). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F:%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8B_%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA) (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

37. Cisco Systems inc (CSCO). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/cisco-sys-inc-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

38. Juniper Networks Inc (JNPR). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/juniper-networks-inc-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

39. Nokia Oyj (NOKIA). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/nokia-finland-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

40. Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson A (ERICa). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/telefon-lm-ericsson-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

41. Ciena Corp (CIEN). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/ciena-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

42. Arista Networks (ANET). – tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/arista-networks-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

43. Ubiquiti Networks Inc (UI). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/ubiquiti-networks-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

44. Ceragon Networks Ltd (CRNT). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/ceragon-ownership?cid=10889 (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

45. Marina, A. Intel smogla snizit' dolyu na rynke servernyh processorov do 62% no dolya AMD vse ravno men'she / A. Marina. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://3dnews.ru/1125080/intel-smogla-snizit-dolyu-na-rynke-servernykh-proczessorov-do-62-no-dolya-amd-vsyo-ravno-menshe (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

46. Processory (mirovoy rynok). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F:%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8B_%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA) (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

47. Processory (mirovoy rynok). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F:%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8B_%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0_(%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA) (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

48. Lapin, I. Arm naraschivaet dolyu rynka CPU,AMD i Intel nemnogo otstupayut / I. Lapin. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.moneytimes.ru/news/arm-naraschivaet-dolju-rynka-cpu-amd-i-intel-nemnogo-otstupajut/53555/ (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

49. Intel Corporation (INTC). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/intel-corp-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

50. Shilov, A. Loongson Technology Develops Its Own CPU Instruction Set Architecture. The end of Arm, MIPS, x86, RISC-V in China? – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.tomshardware.com/news/loongson-technology-develops-its-own-cpu-instruction-set-architecture (data obrascheniya: 18.11.2025 g.).

51. Made in China 2025. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://fdichina.com/glossary/made-in-china-2025/ (data obrascheniya: 18.11.2025 g.).

52. Made in China. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.ispd.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Made-in-China-Backgrounder.pdf (data obrascheniya: 18.11.2025 g.).

53. Boullenois, C., Black, M., Rosen, D.H. Was Made in China 2025 Successful? – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://rhg.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Was-MIC25-Successful.pdf (data obrascheniya: 18.11.2025 g.).

54. Vse o processorah Loongson: kitayskaya arhitektura LoongArch LA464 v servernyh i desktopnyh resheniyah. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://serverflow.ru/blog/stati/vse-o-protsessorakh-loongson-kitayskaya-arkhitektura-loongarch-la464-v-servernykh-i-desktopnykh-resh/ (data obrascheniya: 18.11.2025 g.).

55. Loongson Technology. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://tadviser.ru/index.php/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B8%D1%8F:Loongson_Technology (data obrascheniya: 18.11.2025 g.).

56. LOONGSON TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION LIMITED (CHINA). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://golink.ru/5keMp (data obrascheniya: 18.11.2025 g.)

57. Houweling, E. Chinese state-backed chip designer Loongson eyes $0.5bn Shanghai IPO. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.verdict.co.uk/china-backed-chip-company-files-for-shanghai-ipo/?cf-view (data obrascheniya: 18.11.2025 g.).

58. Connatser, M. China’s Premiere Chipmaker Accelerates to 7nm CPU Design Despite US Sanctions. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.tomshardware.com/news/chinas-premiere-chipmaker-accelerates-to-7nm-cpu-despite-us-sanctions (data obrascheniya: 18.11.2025 g.).

59. Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corp (0981). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.investing.com/equities/smic-ownership (18.11.2025 g.).

60. STMicroelectronics NV ADR (STM). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.investing.com/equities/stmicroelectronics-nv-ownership (data obrascheniya: 18.11.2025 g.).

61. Poluprovodniki. Mirovoy rynok. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F:%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_(%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA) (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

62. Timofeev, K. Ot torgovli ryboy do tehnologicheskoy imperii / K. Timofeev. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/7941964 (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

63. Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing (TSM). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/taiwan-semicond.manufacturing-co-ownership (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

64. Oborudovanie dlya proizvodstva chipov (mirovoy rynok). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F:%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2_(%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA) (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

65. Put' k serdcu poluprovodnikovoy fabriki: kakie litografy dostupny v Rossii? – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://habr.com/ru/articles/699340 (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

66. Obzor kompanii ASML. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://smart-lab.ru/mobile/topic/714605/ (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

67. Analiticheskiy obzor: mirovoy rynok smartfonov v 2024 godu. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://merlion.com/press-center/news/analiticheskiy-obzor-mirovoy-rynok-smartfonov-v-2024-godu/ (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

68. Pol'zovateli iOS ili Android: kto lidiruet po kolichestvu v mire. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://sky.pro/wiki/analytics/polzovateli-ios-ili-android-kto-lidiruet-po-kolichestvu-v-mire/ (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

69. Dolya Google na rynke poiska snizilas' vpervye za devyat' let. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.cnews.ru/top/2025-01-17_dolya_globalnogo_prisutstviya (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

70. Pol'zovateli iOS ili Android: kto lidiruet po kolichestvu v mire. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://sky.pro/wiki/analytics/polzovateli-ios-ili-android-kto-lidiruet-po-kolichestvu-v-mire/ (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

71. Oblachnye vychisleniya v 2025 godu i 10 luchshih postavschikov oblachnyh uslug. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://tridenstechnology.com/ru/%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85-%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B3/ (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

72. Amazon: potencial rosta sohranyaetsya. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://bcs-express.ru/novosti-i-analitika/amazon-potentsial-rosta-sokhraniaetsia (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

73. 51 Amazon Statistics You Need to Know in 2025. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://salesduo.com/blog/amazon-statistics (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.)

74. Tendencii razvitiya oblachnyh servisov 2025 goda: otraslevye i besservernye. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.itweek.ru/its/aticle/detail.php?id=231439 (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

75. Amazon Prime Statistics 2025 (Number of Users & Revenue). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www-yaguara-co.translate.goog/amazon-prime-statistics/?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=ru&_x_tr_hl=ru&_x_tr_pto=sge (data obrascheniya: 25.05.2025 g.).

76. Wildwood, L. 32 Facebook Statistics For 2025 (Users, Market Share, Growth) / L. Wildwood. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://bloggingwizard-com.translate.goog/facebook-statistics/?_x_sl=en&_x_tr=ru&_x_tr_pro=sge (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

77. Ad Spend Forecast To Grow By 4,9% In 2025, Despite A Reduced Economic Outlook. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.dentsu.com/news-releases/ad-spend-forecast-to-grow-by-four-point-nine-percent-in-2025-despite-a-reduced-economic-outlook#:~text=to%20power%20ahead.-,Digital%20ad%20spend%20is%20forecast%20to%20grow%20by%207.9%25%20in,2025%20and%20Social%20by%209.2%25. (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

78. Razrabotka PO (mirovoy rynok). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.tadviser.ru/index.php/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F:%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B2_(%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA) (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

79. Microsoft – zolotoy standart v sektore PO. Povyshaem rekomendaciyu – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://bcs-express.ru/novosti-i-analitika/microsoft-zolotoi-standart-v-sektore-po-pvyshaem-rekomendatsiiiu (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

80. Microsoft: ocenka biznesa vyrosla – menyaem vzglyad na «Neytral'nyy». – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://bcs-express.ru/novosti-i-analitika/microsoft-otsenka-biznesa-vyrosla-meniaem-vzgliad-na-neitral-nyiv (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

81. Apple Inc (AAPL). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/apple-computer-inc-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

82. Amazon.com Inc (AMZN). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/amazon-com-inc-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

83. Alphabet Inc Class A (GOOGL). – Tekst : elektronnyy. –URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/google-inc-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

84. Microsoft Corporation (MSFT). – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/microsoft-corp-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

85. Meta Platforms Inc* (META). – Tekst : elektronnyy. –URL: https://ru.investing.com/equities/facebook-inc-ownership (data obrascheniya: 26.08.2025 g.).

86. Miller, C. Apple’s Supply Chain: Economic and Geopolitical Implications / C. Miller, V. Venugopalan. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.aei.org/research-products/report/apples-supply-chain-economic-and-geopolitical-implications/#:~text=Key%20Points,many%20components%20from%20the%20country. (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

87. Trigo A. Where Are Xbox Made in 2024? / A. Trigo. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://alvarotrigo.com/blog/where-xbox-made/ (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

88. Rikap, C. The US national security state and Big Tech: frenemy relations and innovation planning in turbulent times / C. Rikap. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.epog.eu/?sdm_process_download=1&download_id=9004 (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035357178.00009

89. Intel poluchila krupneyshiy ubytok v istorii. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.cnews.ru/news/top/2025/01-31_intel_poluchila_krupnejshij_ubytok (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

90. Zagvozdkina, E. Tramp podtverdil priobretenie vlastyami SShA 10% Intel / E. Zagvozdkina. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.forbes.ru/teleknologii/544480-tramp-podtverdil-priobretenie-vlastami-ssa-10-intel (data obrascheniya: 25.08.2025 g.).

91. Proxy Statement (DEF 14A) Black Rock 2024-2025. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/2012383/000130817925000388/ny-20250404.htm (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

92. 2025 Proxy Statement State Street 2023-2024. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1031404/000103140423000019/def14a042721.htm (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

93. Proxy Statement (DEF 14A) Vanguard. – Tekst : elektronnyy. – URL: https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/104939/000010493919000032/def14a2018.htm (data obrascheniya: 22.08.2025 g.).

This work is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International

PDF Text JATS XML

Executive editor

Maksim Markin

markinmi@ystu.ru

Chief Editor

Valery Gordeev

vagordeev@rambler.ru

Deputy Editor-in-Chief

Marina Mayorova

mayorovama@ystu.ru

Deputy editor-in-chief

Galina Rodina

galinarodina@mail.ru

1646

downloads

This work is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Creative Commons

GOST

Alpidovskaya M. L., Sirotkina A. I. Reproductive mechanisms of digital inequality // Theoretical economics. 2025. no. 10. pp. 13-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52957/2221-3260-2025-10-13-32. (Date of access 07.09.2026).

MLA

Marina Alpidovskaya, Sirotkina A. I.. "Reproductive mechanisms of digital inequality." Theoretical economics.10 (2025): 13-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52957/2221-3260-2025-10-13-32.

APA

Alpidovskaya M. L., Sirotkina A. I. (2025). Reproductive mechanisms of digital inequality. Theoretical economics(10), 13-32. https://doi.org/10.52957/2221-3260-2025-10-13-32

Chicago

Marina Alpidovskaya, Sirotkina A. I.. "Reproductive mechanisms of digital inequality." Theoretical economics, no. 10 (2025): 13-32. https://doi.org/10.52957/2221-3260-2025-10-13-32.

WIKI

{{cite journal | author = Alpidovskaya M. L., Sirotkina A. I. | title = Reproductive mechanisms of digital inequality | journal = Theoretical economics | year = 2025 | issue = 10 | pages = 13-32 | doi = 10.52957/2221-3260-2025-10-13-32 }}

Copy

Export: BibTeX EndNote RefMan RusMARC

REPRODUCTIVE MECHANISMS OF DIGITAL INEQUALITY Reproductive mechanisms of digital inequality

Confirmation